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The Origins of the Second World War

A.J.P. Taylor (1972)

Genre

Politics / History

Reading Time

8-10 hours

Key Themes

See below

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A.J.P. Taylor argues that the Second World War was not Hitler's premeditated plan, but a series of blunders and miscalculations, rewriting the war's beginnings.

Core Idea

A.J.P. Taylor challenges the idea that the Second World War happened because Adolf Hitler had a long-term plan. Instead, Taylor says the war came from miscalculations, diplomatic mistakes, and standard, though often poor, foreign policy choices by European leaders, including Hitler. Taylor sees Hitler as an opportunistic politician who reacted to events, pushed boundaries, and used the weaknesses of Britain and France. The war, then, was not unavoidable or part of a grand scheme, but an accidental result of traditional diplomacy going wrong. This was made worse by problems from the Treaty of Versailles and political pressures in European nations. Taylor suggests that European powers, Germany included, acted within 19th-century power politics, but with more dangerous results given the time's ideologies. He points out that 'appeasement' was not necessarily cowardice but often a real attempt to keep peace, even if it encouraged Hitler. The book changes the story from one of unavoidable conflict driven by a single aggressor to a complex mix of international relations, domestic politics, and the combined effect of short-sighted choices by everyone involved, which accidentally led to a global disaster.
Reading time
8-10 hours
Difficulty
Medium
✓ Read this if...
You are interested in a revisionist, thought-provoking challenge to the traditional narrative of World War II's origins, focusing on diplomatic blunders and the unintended consequences of policy rather than a master plan.
✗ Skip this if...
You prefer a straightforward account that emphasizes Hitler's singular, premeditated culpability and a clear, linear progression to war, or if you are looking for a detailed military history.

Core idea

The central argument and framework that powers the entire book.

A.J.P. Taylor challenges the idea that the Second World War happened because Adolf Hitler had a long-term plan. Instead, Taylor says the war came from miscalculations, diplomatic mistakes, and standard, though often poor, foreign policy choices by European leaders, including Hitler. Taylor sees Hitler as an opportunistic politician who reacted to events, pushed boundaries, and used the weaknesses of Britain and France. The war, then, was not unavoidable or part of a grand scheme, but an accidental result of traditional diplomacy going wrong. This was made worse by problems from the Treaty of Versailles and political pressures in European nations.

Taylor suggests that European powers, Germany included, acted within 19th-century power politics, but with more dangerous results given the time's ideologies. He points out that 'appeasement' was not necessarily cowardice but often a real attempt to keep peace, even if it encouraged Hitler. The book changes the story from one of unavoidable conflict driven by a single aggressor to a complex mix of international relations, domestic politics, and the combined effect of short-sighted choices by everyone involved, which accidentally led to a global disaster.

At a glance

Reading time

8-10 hours

Difficulty

Medium

Read this if...

You are interested in a revisionist, thought-provoking challenge to the traditional narrative of World War II's origins, focusing on diplomatic blunders and the unintended consequences of policy rather than a master plan.

Skip this if...

You prefer a straightforward account that emphasizes Hitler's singular, premeditated culpability and a clear, linear progression to war, or if you are looking for a detailed military history.

Key Takeaways

1

No Master Plan, Just Blunders

Hitler's foreign policy was one of opportunism, not a premeditated blueprint for war.

Quote

Hitler was a master opportunist, not a master planner. He took advantage of situations as they arose, rather than executing a long-term, calculated scheme for world domination.

Taylor challenges the common post-war idea that Hitler carefully planned World War II from the start. Instead, he says Hitler's foreign policy was mostly improvised, a series of calculated risks that grew unexpectedly. Hitler reacted to events and what he saw as weaknesses in other European powers, rather than following a strict timeline or 'master plan' from books like 'Mein Kampf.' This view shifts blame from one evil mastermind to a more complex mix of diplomatic failures, miscalculations, and Europe's unstable political situation ...

Supporting evidence

Taylor meticulously dissects the Hossbach Memorandum, arguing it was a brainstorming session, not a binding directive for war. He points to Hitler's repeated willingness to negotiate and his surprise at the British and French declarations of war in September 1939 as evidence against a pre-planned conflict.

Apply this

When analyzing historical events, question whether grand narratives simplify complex realities. Look for evidence of improvisation, unintended consequences, and the role of chance, rather than assuming a linear progression towards a predetermined outcome.

revisionist-historycontingencyopportunism
2

Appeasement's Unintended Consequences

The policy of appeasement, while well-intentioned, inadvertently emboldened Hitler.

Quote

The policy of appeasement was not a sign of moral cowardice but a rational attempt to avoid another catastrophic war, yet it ultimately failed by encouraging Hitler's expansionist ambitions.

Taylor argues that British and French appeasement policies were not necessarily weak, but came from a deep and understandable desire to avoid another World War I. However, this well-intentioned strategy accidentally encouraged Hitler. Each concession, from the Rhineland to Austria and Czechoslovakia, strengthened Hitler's belief that Western powers would not stop him, leading to more demands. Instead of preventing aggression, appeasement accidentally gave a green light for gradual expansion, pushing Europe closer to the war it wanted ...

Supporting evidence

The Munich Agreement of 1938, where Britain and France acquiesced to Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland, is presented as the quintessential example. Taylor suggests this agreement, intended to secure 'peace in our time,' merely confirmed Hitler's belief that he could push further.

Apply this

In contemporary international relations, consider how concessions to aggressive regimes might be interpreted. Distinguish between genuine diplomatic solutions and appeasement that merely delays or encourages further aggression.

appeasementdiplomatic-failureunintended-consequences
3

The German Question Reimagined

German foreign policy under Hitler shared continuities with pre-Weimar and Weimar-era goals.

Quote

Hitler's foreign policy aims, particularly the revision of the Treaty of Versailles and the unification of all Germans, were not entirely novel but were deeply rooted in traditional German national aspirations.

One of Taylor's most debated arguments is that Hitler's foreign policy was not a radical change from traditional German goals, but a faster and more aggressive pursuit of existing nationalistic aims. He argues that goals like changing the Treaty of Versailles, uniting German-speaking people, and making Germany dominant in Central and Eastern Europe were common in German political thought long before Hitler. Hitler simply provided the ruthless will and the means to achieve these old goals. This view challenges the idea of Hitler as a u...

Supporting evidence

Taylor draws parallels between Hitler's demands for the Sudetenland and earlier German nationalist movements seeking to incorporate German minorities from neighboring states. He also highlights continuities in the German military's desire for rearmament and territorial expansion.

Apply this

When analyzing historical figures, look for how their actions might align with or diverge from broader national historical trends. Avoid isolating individuals from the larger political and cultural currents of their time.

german-nationalismtreaty-of-versailleshistorical-continuity
4

The Treaty of Versailles' Legacy

The punitive nature of the Treaty of Versailles created fertile ground for future conflict.

Quote

The Treaty of Versailles, by attempting to cripple Germany, inadvertently created the very conditions for resentment and revisionism that would lead to another war.

Taylor largely blames the Treaty of Versailles for setting the stage for World War II. He says its harsh terms — territorial losses, huge reparations, and the 'war guilt' clause — caused deep anger and a strong desire for change in Germany. This created a political environment ready for extreme ideas that promised to restore German pride and power. Instead of ensuring lasting peace, the treaty created future conflict by humiliating and financially destabilizing Germany, making it open to figures like Hitler who used this widespread un...

Supporting evidence

The 'Diktat' narrative, widely accepted in Germany, is cited as a powerful motivator for revisionist policies. Taylor points to the economic hardships and political instability in Weimar Germany directly linked to the treaty's demands.

Apply this

In conflict resolution, prioritize sustainable peace over punitive measures. Understand that imposed settlements, even with good intentions, can create new grievances that fuel future conflicts.

treaty-of-versailleswar-guiltrevisionism
5

The Role of Other Powers

The inaction and miscalculations of Britain, France, and Russia contributed significantly to the outbreak of war.

Quote

The war was as much a product of the failures of the status quo powers as it was of Hitler's aggressive designs.

Taylor's analysis does not only focus on Hitler; it also looks critically at the roles of other major European powers. He argues that the indecisiveness of Britain and France, their failure to form a united front against Germany, and their constant underestimation of Hitler's intentions played a key role. Similarly, the Soviet Union's changing alliances and its agreement with Germany (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) removed a major obstacle to Hitler's eastern plans. These failures of collective security and diplomatic resolve, combined ...

Supporting evidence

Taylor details the Anglo-French failure to intervene during the remilitarization of the Rhineland, the Austrian Anschluss, and the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. He also analyzes the hesitant Soviet attempts at alliance with the West before turning to Germany.

Apply this

In international politics, recognize that collective action and clear deterrence are crucial. A lack of unity or a failure to act decisively can inadvertently empower aggressive actors.

collective-securitydiplomatic-failuremolotov-ribbentrop-pact
6

Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy

Internal political pressures and economic conditions heavily influenced each nation's foreign policy decisions.

Quote

Foreign policy is often merely domestic policy pursued by other means, and the internal struggles of each nation profoundly shaped their responses to the gathering storm.

Taylor emphasizes that the foreign policy decisions of Britain, France, and Germany were heavily influenced by their domestic politics and economies. For Britain and France, economic depression and a strong public desire to avoid war (from memories of WWI) limited their governments' ability to stand firm against Hitler. In Germany, Hitler's aggressive foreign policy helped him consolidate power internally, distract from domestic problems, and fulfill promises of national revival. Understanding these internal pressures is important to ...

Supporting evidence

Taylor discusses the British public's strong anti-war sentiment and the economic constraints on rearmament in Britain and France. For Germany, he highlights how Hitler's successes abroad boosted his popularity and quelled internal dissent.

Apply this

When analyzing political decisions, always consider the domestic context. Understand that leaders are often balancing internal pressures with external challenges, which can lead to seemingly contradictory or hesitant actions.

domestic-politicseconomic-depressionpublic-opinion
7

The 'Normal' European Statesman

Hitler's actions, though extreme, often mirrored the methods of traditional European statesmen.

Quote

Hitler acted like a normal German statesman, pursuing traditional German aims, albeit with a ruthlessness and speed that startled his contemporaries.

Taylor's most debated claim is that, regarding foreign policy goals, Hitler was not an entirely unique or irrational figure, but a statesman working within traditional European power politics. His methods — demands for territorial changes, rearmament, and asserting national interest — were familiar, even if his scale and speed were new. This view challenges the 'madman' theory of Hitler, arguing that his success came from using existing diplomatic norms and the weaknesses of others, rather than only through revolutionary means. While ...

Supporting evidence

Taylor compares Hitler's demands for the Sudetenland or Danzig to historical precedents of great powers asserting their influence or reclaiming territories based on nationalistic claims. He argues Hitler's diplomatic maneuvers were often conventional, if aggressive.

Apply this

Avoid historical exceptionalism. Even the most extreme figures often operate within, or exploit, existing political and diplomatic frameworks. Understanding these continuities can offer deeper insights than simply labeling them as 'evil' or 'mad'.

power-politicsrealpolitikdiplomatic-norms
8

The 'War of Aims' vs. 'War of Blunders'

The Second World War erupted more from a series of miscalculations than a deliberate 'war of aims'.

Quote

The Second World War, far from being a war of Hitler's deliberate aims, was rather a war of blunders and misunderstandings, where no one truly desired the outcome.

Taylor's final conclusion is that the Second World War was not a grand, deliberate plan by Hitler to conquer Europe, but a tragic 'war of blunders.' He suggests that none of the major powers, including Germany, truly wanted a general European war to start in September 1939. Instead, a series of escalating diplomatic crises, misjudgments of intentions, and a failure to de-escalate led to a situation where war became an accidental, but unavoidable, outcome. Hitler sought local gains, Britain and France wanted to avoid war, and yet, thro...

Supporting evidence

Taylor points to Hitler's surprise at the British and French declarations of war after the invasion of Poland. He argues that Hitler expected another diplomatic capitulation, not a general war, suggesting his objectives were more limited.

Apply this

Recognize that major historical events, especially wars, can often be the result of complex interactions and unintended consequences, rather than the singular will of one actor. Look for the points of no return and the compounding errors.

unintended-consequencescasus-bellidiplomatic-escalation
9

History as Interpretation

Taylor's work is a powerful reminder that historical narratives are constantly open to re-examination and debate.

Quote

The historian's task is not to confirm established myths, but to relentlessly question and reinterpret the past based on the available evidence, however uncomfortable the conclusions may be.

Beyond its specific arguments about World War II, Taylor's The Origins of the Second World War shows the dynamic and often debated nature of historical interpretation. By questioning a deeply held post-war agreement, he showed that even seemingly settled historical events can be re-evaluated based on new perspectives or a critical re-reading of evidence. His work caused anger because it dared to question a comforting, but simple, story. This point highlights that history is not just facts but an ongoing process of inquiry, debate, a...

Supporting evidence

The intense controversy and scholarly debate his book generated upon its publication, which continues to some extent today, serves as evidence of its impact as a re-interpretation of history.

Apply this

Approach historical accounts with a critical eye, always questioning the source, the context, and alternative interpretations. Understand that 'truth' in history is often constructed and can evolve with new evidence and perspectives.

historiographyhistorical-revisionismsource-criticism

Critical analysis

Notable Quotes

“The war of 1939, far from being premeditated, was a mistake, the result on both sides of diplomatic blunders.”

— Taylor's controversial thesis challenging the idea of Hitler's deliberate planning for war.

“Hitler was no more wicked and unscrupulous than many other contemporary statesmen.”

— Argument that Hitler operated within existing European power politics.

“The Treaty of Versailles was not exceptionally vindictive, judged by previous peace treaties.”

— Revisionist view challenging the common emphasis on Versailles as primary cause.

“The fundamental cause of the war was the system of international anarchy which allowed each state to decide for itself whether to keep the peace.”

— Analysis of structural flaws in the international system.

“Appeasement was not a cowardly policy, but a sensible attempt to remove the grievances which might lead to war.”

— Defense of British and French pre-war diplomacy.

“Hitler's foreign policy was that of his predecessors, of the professional diplomats at the German foreign office.”

— Argument that Hitler continued traditional German aims rather than creating new ones.

“The war came because the British government finally made a stand, not because Hitler planned a general war.”

— Emphasis on British decision-making in 1939.

“No war is inevitable until it breaks out.”

— Rejection of deterministic historical explanations.

“The Polish crisis was a diplomatic blunder which got out of hand.”

— Analysis of the immediate events leading to war declaration.

“Statesmen are concerned with immediate issues, not with long-term plans.”

— View of decision-makers as reactive rather than visionary.

“The real crime of the Nazis was not that they made war, but that they exterminated the Jews.”

— Distinction between war causation and Holocaust responsibility.

“History gets thicker as it approaches recent times.”

— Observation about historical evidence and interpretation.

“The balance of power, not collective security, determined the actions of states.”

— Critique of League of Nations and idealistic diplomacy.

“Men learn from history only that men never learn from history.”

— Pessimistic reflection on historical lessons (paraphrasing Hegel).

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Key Questions (FAQ)

Taylor argues that Hitler did not have a premeditated master plan for world war, but rather blundered into it through opportunism and miscalculation, aided by the failures of other European leaders. He challenges the conventional view of Hitler as an evil genius with a clear blueprint for conquest.

About the author

A.J.P. Taylor

A.J.P. Taylor

A.J.P. Taylor was a renowned British historian, celebrated for his provocative interpretations of modern history. His seminal work, 'The Origins of the Second World War,' challenged conventional wisdom and cemented his reputation as a controversial yet influential figure in historical scholarship. Taylor's prolific writing career spanned several decades, producing numerous influential books on British and European history.