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Second Treatise of Government

John Locke (2016)

Genre

Politics / History / Philosophy

Reading Time

240 min

Key Themes

See below

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John Locke's treatise, written during a time of absolute monarchy, champions individual liberty, limited government, and the right of the people to overthrow tyranny, fundamentally changing political thought.

Core Idea

John Locke's "Second Treatise of Government" proposes that political authority comes from the consent of the governed, not from divine right or absolute power. It argues for inherent natural rights—life, liberty, and property—which exist before government and cannot be taken away. People form a social contract to protect these rights, giving limited power to a government bound by laws, mainly to safeguard property. If the government breaks this trust and becomes tyrannical, the people have the right to resist and remove it. The treatise rejects absolute monarchy, advocating for a system where power is shared and accountable to the public. It states that property, which includes one's person and possessions, is the main reason for forming civil society. It also outlines how a government should uphold the rule of law and protect individual liberties from arbitrary power.
Reading time
240 min
Difficulty
Hard
✓ Read this if...
You want to understand the foundational philosophical arguments for natural rights, limited government, the social contract, and the right to revolution that shaped Western political thought and the American Constitution.
✗ Skip this if...
You are looking for a light read or a contemporary political analysis; this is a dense, historical philosophical text requiring careful reading.

Core idea

The central argument and framework that powers the entire book.

John Locke's "Second Treatise of Government" proposes that political authority comes from the consent of the governed, not from divine right or absolute power. It argues for inherent natural rights—life, liberty, and property—which exist before government and cannot be taken away. People form a social contract to protect these rights, giving limited power to a government bound by laws, mainly to safeguard property. If the government breaks this trust and becomes tyrannical, the people have the right to resist and remove it.

The treatise rejects absolute monarchy, advocating for a system where power is shared and accountable to the public. It states that property, which includes one's person and possessions, is the main reason for forming civil society. It also outlines how a government should uphold the rule of law and protect individual liberties from arbitrary power.

At a glance

Reading time

240 min

Difficulty

Hard

Read this if...

You want to understand the foundational philosophical arguments for natural rights, limited government, the social contract, and the right to revolution that shaped Western political thought and the American Constitution.

Skip this if...

You are looking for a light read or a contemporary political analysis; this is a dense, historical philosophical text requiring careful reading.

Key Takeaways

1

Natural Rights: The Unalienable Foundation

Before government, individuals possess inherent rights to life, liberty, and property.

Quote

The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions.

Locke states that in the 'state of nature' – a condition before politics – all individuals are free, equal, and independent. This state is not without laws; it is governed by a 'law of nature' that reason can discover. This law says that no one should harm another's life, health, liberty, or possessions. These natural rights are not given by any government; they are part of being human, existing before and thus limiting political authority. Protecting these rights is the main reason for forming civil society, and any government that f...

Supporting evidence

Locke's foundational argument for the 'state of nature' and the 'law of nature' as the basis for all legitimate government, preceding and grounding the social contract.

Apply this

Reflect on modern human rights declarations and constitutional protections. Do they truly reflect unalienable rights, or are they subject to governmental discretion? Advocate for policies that prioritize individual liberties and property rights as fundamental, rather than as privileges granted by the state.

state-of-naturelaw-of-naturenatural-rights
2

Labor Theory of Property: Mixing Self with Nature

Individuals acquire property by mixing their labor with unowned resources.

Quote

Every man has a property in his own person: this no body has any right to but himself. The labour of his body, and the work of his hands, we may say, are properly his. Whatsoever then he removes out of the state that nature hath provided, and left it in, he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property.

Locke's property theory is original, claiming that property rights come from individual labor, not government grants or divine decrees. When a person works to change a natural resource – by picking an apple, farming a field, or making an item – they mix their effort with that resource, making it their rightful property. This justification for private ownership is important because it supports the idea that people have a right to what they produce. However, Locke includes conditions: one must leave 'enough and as good' for others, and ...

Supporting evidence

Locke's detailed explanation of how an individual's labor, when mixed with common resources, transforms them into private property, using examples like gathering acorns or cultivating land.

Apply this

Consider the ethical implications of intellectual property, land use, and resource allocation. Does current property law adequately reflect the labor theory, or has it become detached? Support fair compensation for labor and policies that prevent monopolistic hoarding of essential resources, ensuring 'enough and as good' remains.

labor-theory-of-propertyprivate-propertyacquisition
3

The Social Contract: Consent to Govern

Legitimate government arises from the explicit consent of the governed to protect their rights.

Quote

Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal, and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.

For Locke, moving from the state of nature to civil society is voluntary and based on agreement. People agree to give up certain freedoms – mainly the right to enforce the law of nature themselves – in exchange for fair justice and the protection of their natural rights, especially property. This 'social contract' is not a surrender of all rights, but a transfer of power to a government whose right to rule comes only from the consent of the people it governs. Any government that acts outside this trust, or against the people's basic r...

Supporting evidence

Locke's argument that political power can only be derived from the consent of the governed, distinguishing between express and tacit consent in forming and maintaining a civil society.

Apply this

Scrutinize governmental actions and policies through the lens of consent. Do citizens truly consent to current taxation, surveillance, or foreign policy? Advocate for transparent governance, robust democratic processes, and mechanisms that allow citizens to withdraw consent from tyrannical or rights-infringing governments.

social-contractconsent-of-the-governedpolitical-legitimacy
4

Limited Government: Checks on Power

Governmental power must be constrained and divided to prevent tyranny and protect individual liberties.

Quote

The legislative power, whether placed in one or more, whether always in being, or only by intervals, though it be the supreme power in every commonwealth, yet it is not, nor can possibly be, absolutely arbitrary over the lives and fortunes of the people.

Locke strongly supports limited government, arguing that even the highest legislative power is not absolute. Its authority is restricted by the very purpose for which government was created: to preserve life, liberty, and property. He proposes a separation of powers, mainly between the legislative (law-making) and executive (law-enforcing) branches, with the legislative being supreme but still answerable. This division prevents any single entity from gaining too much power and becoming tyrannical. Government actions must always follow...

Supporting evidence

Locke's exposition on the proper bounds of legislative power, emphasizing that it cannot be arbitrary and must govern by promulgated, established laws, not extemporary decrees.

Apply this

Evaluate your nation's governmental structure. Are there sufficient checks and balances between branches? Does the executive branch overstep its bounds, or does the legislative branch become too powerful? Support constitutional reforms that strengthen the separation of powers and limit executive overreach, ensuring no single entity wields absolute authority.

limited-governmentseparation-of-powersrule-of-law
5

Right of Revolution: When Tyranny Justifies Resistance

If government acts against the trust of the people, the people have a right to resist and establish new governance.

Quote

Whenever the legislators endeavour to take away, and destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereupon absolved from any farther obedience, and are left to the common refuge, which God hath provided for all men, against force and violence.

Perhaps Locke's most impactful idea is the justification for revolution. If a government regularly abuses its power, violates citizens' natural rights, or tries to enslave them, it breaks the social contract and effectively declares war on the people. In such extreme cases, the people are no longer bound to obey and have the right to resist, overthrow the tyrannical government, and establish a new one that will better protect their interests. This is not an endorsement of frequent rebellion but a last option when the government has co...

Supporting evidence

Locke's argument that when the legislative or executive acts contrary to the trust placed in them by the people, they forfeit their authority, returning power to the people to establish new governance.

Apply this

Analyze historical and contemporary movements for liberation and self-determination. Were the conditions for a Lockean right of revolution met? Support peaceful means of political change, but understand the philosophical basis for resistance when governments become truly tyrannical and unresponsive to the will of the people.

right-of-revolutiontyrannyresistancepopular-sovereignty
6

Tacit Consent: The Unspoken Agreement

Enjoying the benefits of a society implies a tacit agreement to its laws and governance.

Quote

Every man, that hath any possession, or enjoyment, of any part of the dominions of any government, doth thereby give his tacit consent, and is as far forth obliged to obedience to the laws of that government, during such enjoyment, as any one under it; whether this his possession be of land, to him and his heirs for ever, or a lodging only for a week; or whether it be barely travelling freely on the highway.

While explicit consent (like taking an oath) is ideal, Locke admits that most people do not clearly agree to be governed. He introduces 'tacit consent,' arguing that simply enjoying the benefits of civil society – owning property, using its roads, or living within its territory – implies an unspoken agreement to follow its laws and support its government. This practical idea addresses how new generations or residents become bound by the social contract. However, it raises questions about how truly voluntary consent is when merely exis...

Supporting evidence

Locke's explanation of tacit consent, where enjoying any property or benefit within a government's dominion implies an obligation to obey its laws, even without explicit declaration.

Apply this

Consider the implications of tacit consent in modern society. Does using public services or digital platforms imply consent to their terms, even if unfavorable? Critically evaluate situations where consent is assumed rather than explicitly given, and advocate for clearer, more explicit forms of consent in political and digital spheres.

tacit-consentpolitical-obligationcitizenship
7

Property as the Purpose of Government

The preservation of property is the chief end for which men unite into commonwealths.

Quote

The great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property; to which in the state of nature there are many things wanting.

Locke clearly states that the 'main goal' of forming civil society is to preserve property. He defines property broadly, including not just material possessions but also 'life, liberty, and estate.' In the state of nature, enjoying these properties is uncertain because there are no established laws, fair judges, or executive power. Government is created specifically to fix these problems, providing a stable framework for the secure enjoyment of one's possessions and person. This focus on property as the central concern of government h...

Supporting evidence

Locke's direct assertion that the 'great and chief end' of uniting into commonwealths is the preservation of property, which he defines to include life, liberty, and estate.

Apply this

Examine how property rights are protected and debated in your society. Are they prioritized over other rights, or are they balanced? Advocate for a holistic understanding of 'property' that includes personal security and freedom, and ensure that governmental actions genuinely protect, rather than infringe upon, these fundamental aspects of human well-being.

property-rightschief-end-of-governmenteconomic-freedom
8

The Dangers of Absolute Monarchy

Absolute power is fundamentally incompatible with civil society and the protection of natural rights.

Quote

Absolute arbitrary power, or governing without settled standing laws, can neither consist with the ends of society and government, which are the preservation of property, nor be tolerable to a rational creature.

Locke strongly opposes absolute monarchy, arguing that a single ruler with unlimited power is still in a 'state of nature' relative to his subjects, but without the checks of natural law. Such a ruler, being both lawmaker and enforcer, can act randomly, infringing upon subjects' lives, liberty, and property without recourse. This defeats the purpose of civil society, which is to escape the uncertainties of the state of nature by establishing fair laws and judges. For Locke, an absolute monarch is worse than the state of nature itself,...

Supporting evidence

Locke's critique of absolute monarchy, arguing that it fails to provide the impartial judge and established law necessary for civil society, leaving subjects without recourse against the arbitrary power of the sovereign.

Apply this

Reflect on contemporary authoritarian regimes. Do they exhibit the characteristics Locke warned against? Support democratic reforms and international efforts to curb absolute power, advocating for constitutionalism and human rights protections in all nations, understanding that unchecked power leads to oppression.

absolute-monarchytyrannyarbitrary-powerrule-of-man
9

Parental vs. Political Power: A Crucial Distinction

Parental authority is temporary and for the child's benefit; political power is based on consent and for the common good.

Quote

The power, then, that parents have over their children, arises from that duty which is incumbent on them, to take care of their offspring, during the imperfect state of childhood. To inform the mind, and govern the actions of their yet ignorant nonage, till reason shall take its place, and ease them of that trouble, is what the children want, and the parents are bound to.

Locke carefully distinguishes between parental power and political power, a key point often confused by supporters of absolute monarchy. Parental power is natural, temporary, and aims to nurture and educate children until they become rational, independent adults. It is not absolute or permanent. In contrast, political power comes from the consent of free and equal adults, is permanent (until dissolved by the people), and aims to preserve their collective property and rights. Confusing these two, as some monarchists did, wrongly justif...

Supporting evidence

Locke's dedicated chapter distinguishing paternal power from political power, emphasizing its temporary nature and purpose for the child's good, not for the parents' arbitrary rule.

Apply this

Examine how different forms of authority are justified in society, from family to workplace to government. Are some authorities overstepping their legitimate bounds by treating adults as subordinates rather than free agents? Advocate for respectful, consent-based relationships in all spheres, recognizing the distinct nature and limits of various forms of power.

paternal-powerpolitical-powerconsent-vs-nurture
10

Rule of Law: Governing by Established, Known Laws

Legitimate government operates under fixed, public laws, not arbitrary decrees.

Quote

Freedom of men under government is, to have a standing rule to live by, common to every one of that society, and made by the legislative power erected in it; a liberty to follow my own will in all things, where the rule prescribes not; and not to be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, arbitrary will of another man.

A main idea in Locke's vision for civil society is the rule of law. He argues that true liberty under government means living by 'standing rules to live by,' which are common to everyone, publicly known, and established by the legitimate legislative power. This differs greatly from arbitrary rule, where individuals are subject to a ruler's unpredictable and often self-serving decisions. The rule of law ensures predictability, fairness, and equal application of justice, thereby protecting individual freedom and property from arbitrary ...

Supporting evidence

Locke's insistence that for government to be legitimate and for men to be truly free within it, it must govern by promulgated, established laws, not by extemporary, arbitrary decrees.

Apply this

Assess the transparency and consistency of legal systems. Are laws clearly communicated, equally applied, and free from arbitrary interpretation? Advocate for judicial independence, legal literacy, and legislative processes that prioritize clear, consistent, and publicly accessible laws to ensure true freedom under the rule of law.

rule-of-lawdue-processlegal-certainty

Critical analysis

Notable Quotes

“The great and chief end, therefore, of men's uniting into commonwealths, and putting themselves under government, is the preservation of their property.”

— Locke's argument for the purpose of civil society.

“Slavery is so vile and miserable an estate of man, and so directly opposite to the generous temper and courage of our nation, that it is hardly to be conceived that an Englishman, much less a gentleman, should plead for it.”

— A strong condemnation of slavery.

“To understand political power right, and derive it from its original, we must consider, what state all men are naturally in, and that is, a state of perfect freedom to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave, or depending upon the will of any other man.”

— Defining the state of nature and natural liberty.

“But though this be a state of liberty, yet it is not a state of licence.”

— Clarifying that natural liberty is not absolute freedom to do anything.

“Where-ever law ends, tyranny begins.”

— Warning against abuse of power by rulers.

“Men being, as has been said, by nature, all free, equal, and independent, no one can be put out of this estate, and subjected to the political power of another, without his own consent.”

— The basis of legitimate government through consent.

“The labour of his body, and the work of his hands, we may say, are properly his. Whatsoever then he removes out of the state that nature hath provided, and left it in, he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property.”

— Locke's labor theory of property.

“For nobody can transfer to another more power than he has in himself; and nobody has an absolute arbitrary power over himself, or over any other, to destroy his own life, or take away the life or property of another.”

— Limitations on individual and governmental power.

“The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom.”

— Explaining the true purpose of law.

“Whenever the legislators endeavour to take away, and destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power, they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereupon absolved from any farther obedience.”

— Justification for the right of revolution.

“And thus the community may be said in this respect to be always the supreme power, but not as considered under any form of government, because this power of the people can never take place till the government be dissolved.”

— On the ultimate sovereignty of the people.

“It is not the business of the prince to take away the property of his subjects without their consent.”

— A key limitation on royal or executive power.

“The power of the father doth not reach at all to the lives or fortunes of his children, and cannot in any wise dispose of them.”

— Distinguishing paternal power from political power.

“For no man can, by compact, pass over to another that which he hath not in himself, a power over his own life.”

— Further emphasizing limitations on the transfer of rights.

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The main argument is that government legitimacy derives from the consent of the governed, with individuals possessing natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Locke argues for a limited government whose primary purpose is to protect these rights, and he outlines conditions under which citizens have a right to revolution.

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