Conservatism

Muller's best insight is his new view of conservatism's beginnings. He argues it is not simply against the Enlightenment. Instead, he shows how thinkers like Edmund Burke, often called the father of modern conservatism, were deeply involved with Enlightenment ideas, especially about reason, individual rights, and progress. Their 'conservatism' was a careful critique of some Enlightenment extremes, like radical rationalism and abstract universalism. They supported keeping existing institutions, traditions, and social hierarchies as sou...

Muller often points out conservatives' doubt about abstract, universal reason when applied to government and social reform. Thinkers like Burke and Michael Oakeshott argued that society is too complex, too reliant on unspoken knowledge, inherited customs, and evolved institutions to be remade entirely by rational plans. Attempts to impose grand, theoretical schemes—like those during the French Revolution—often cause unexpected problems, disorder, and tyranny. This is not a rejection of reason itself, but a call for a more modest, prac...

Muller emphasizes the conservative focus on 'intermediate institutions'—family, church, local communities, voluntary groups—as important defenses against both isolated individualism and an overly powerful state. These institutions give people a sense of belonging, teach moral values, and build civic virtues that cannot be created by law alone. They act as training grounds for self-governance and responsibility, connecting individuals to the larger state. Without them, people become isolated, more easily controlled by the state, and le...

Muller identifies a consistent conservative belief in the flawed nature of humanity, leading to skepticism about perfect societies and human perfectibility. Conservatives generally believe that individuals are prone to vice, irrationality, and self-interest, and thus need strong moral frameworks, social norms, and legal limits to maintain order. This view sharply contrasts with more optimistic Enlightenment ideas of human perfectibility through reason. For conservatives, institutions like religion, law, and tradition are not just arbi...

Muller clarifies the conservative respect for tradition, not as blind loyalty to the past, but as a recognition of its value as accumulated wisdom. Unlike radical reformers who might dismiss tradition as irrational or old-fashioned, conservatives argue that customs, institutions, and social practices have often evolved through generations of trial and error, embodying practical solutions to lasting human problems. This 'presumption in favor of existing arrangements' suggests that what has survived the test of time likely contains valu...

A consistent theme in conservative thought, as Muller shows, is the strong defense of private property. This is not just an economic preference but a core principle tied to individual liberty, social stability, and responsible citizenship. Conservatives argue that property ownership gives individuals autonomy, a stake in society, and a reason for productive work and responsible management. Secure property rights are seen as essential for economic prosperity, encouraging investment and long-term planning. Moreover, widespread property ...

Muller highlights conservative skepticism towards radical equality, especially equality of outcome. While generally accepting equality before the law, conservatives often argue that natural differences in talent, effort, and virtue lead to social hierarchies and disparities. Attempts to enforce absolute equality of condition are seen as unrealistic, requiring coercive state power, and ultimately harmful to individual liberty and excellence. They believe that a healthy society needs distinctions and hierarchies to reward merit, encoura...

Muller explores how conservatism often connects with a strong sense of national identity and cultural unity. For many conservative thinkers, the nation-state is not just a political construct but a repository of shared history, language, customs, and values that bind a people together. This shared culture provides a sense of belonging, purpose, and moral order, which is essential for political stability and legitimacy. They often view cosmopolitanism and radical multiculturalism with suspicion, fearing they can weaken the common bonds...

A key aspect of conservative thought, as detailed by Muller, is the emphasis on prudence and practicality in political action. This contrasts with ideological passion or utopian visions. Conservative leaders are often characterized by a cautious, incremental approach to reform, a deep respect for existing institutions, and a pragmatic assessment of what is achievable given human nature and social reality. They prioritize stability and order, believing that even imperfect systems are better than the chaos that can result from radical, ...

This takeaway is important for understanding Muller's contribution: he carefully distinguishes conservatism from similar but different ideologies. Orthodoxy, he argues, is a static adherence to established doctrines, often religious, that rejects any deviation or innovation. Reaction, on the other hand, is a desire to actively reverse historical changes and restore a previous, often idealized, social order. Conservatism, as Muller presents it, is more dynamic. It is a critical engagement with modernity, seeking to preserve valuable el...