Does 'Metaphors We Live By' suggest that all thought is metaphorical?

While the book emphasizes the pervasive role of metaphor in structuring our understanding, it doesn't claim all thought is metaphorical. Instead, it highlights how conceptual metaphors provide the framework for comprehending abstract ideas, building upon our direct physical and social experiences.

What is a 'conceptual metaphor' according to Lakoff and Johnson?

A conceptual metaphor is an understanding of one idea, typically an abstract one, in terms of another, usually more concrete one. For example, 'ARGUMENT IS WAR' is a conceptual metaphor where we understand arguments through the lens of warfare, leading to phrases like 'winning' or 'losing' an argument.

How does 'Metaphors We Live By' differ from traditional views of metaphor?

Traditional views often treat metaphor as a stylistic device of language, a poetic embellishment. Lakoff and Johnson, however, argue that metaphor is a fundamental cognitive tool that structures our thought processes and perceptions, operating mostly unconsciously rather than as a conscious linguistic choice.

Can understanding conceptual metaphors change how we think or act?

Yes, by becoming aware of the conceptual metaphors that shape our understanding, we can critically examine them and potentially choose to use or promote alternative metaphors. This awareness can lead to shifts in perspective, communication, and even policy, as metaphors implicitly guide our reasoning and decisions.

What is the significance of the phrase 'metaphors we live by'?

The phrase signifies that these metaphors are not just linguistic expressions but are deeply embedded in our cognitive system, structuring our everyday experiences, perceptions, and actions without us often realizing it. They are the unconscious frameworks through which we make sense of the world.

Does 'Metaphors We Live By' have implications for fields like politics or advertising?

Absolutely. The book's insights are highly relevant to understanding how framing and language in politics and advertising can subtly influence public opinion and behavior. By choosing specific metaphors, communicators can evoke particular understandings and sway perceptions without explicit argumentation.

What is the role of the body in understanding metaphor, as described in the book?

Lakoff and Johnson emphasize that our physical experiences and bodily interactions with the world form the basis for many conceptual metaphors. For instance, 'UP IS GOOD' (e.g., 'high spirits') often stems from our physical experience of standing upright and feeling strong, or growth being upward.

Is 'Metaphors We Live By' still relevant in contemporary cognitive science?

Yes, the book remains highly influential and its theory of metaphor has become central to the contemporary understanding of how we think and express thoughts in language within the cognitive sciences. The updated edition includes an afterword detailing its continued development and impact.

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Metaphors We Live By

Name: Metaphors We Live By
Availability: InStock
Rating: 4.1 (4858 reviews)
ISBN: 9780226468013

George Lakoff (1980)

Genre

Psychology / Creativity / Science / Philosophy

Reading Time

270 min

Key Themes

See below

Track Your Reading

This book shows how hidden metaphors in everyday language shape our thoughts and actions, often without us knowing it.

Core Idea

George Lakoff and Mark Johnson say metaphor is not just a poetic tool, but a basic part of human thought and language. They believe our conceptual system is mostly metaphorical; we understand one thing by thinking of it as another. This conceptual metaphor comes from our physical experiences and shapes how we see things, reason, and act, often unconsciously. The book shows how abstract ideas like time, arguments, and love are organized by concrete metaphors (e.g., 'time is money,' 'argument is war,' 'love is a journey'). This reveals our understanding of reality is not objective, but built and limited by these hidden metaphorical frameworks. If we recognize and analyze these metaphors, we can see how they shape our culture, politics, and personal lives. We can also consciously change how we metaphorize experiences to create new realities.

Reading time

270 min

Difficulty

Hard

✓ Read this if...

You are interested in how language shapes thought, how abstract concepts are formed, or want to understand the hidden mechanisms behind our everyday reasoning and cultural narratives. Essential for anyone in linguistics, cognitive science, philosophy, or communication.

✗ Skip this if...

You prefer practical self-help or business books, or are not interested in dense, theoretical explorations of language and cognition. This is an academic book, not a casual read.

Core idea

The central argument and framework that powers the entire book.

At a glance

Reading time

270 min

Difficulty

Hard

Read this if...

Skip this if...

You prefer practical self-help or business books, or are not interested in dense, theoretical explorations of language and cognition. This is an academic book, not a casual read.

Key Takeaways

Metaphor is Not Just Poetic Device

Conceptual metaphors structure our thought and perception, not just our language.

Quote
Metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.

Lakoff and Johnson change the traditional view of metaphor as just a linguistic or poetic decoration. They say metaphor is a main mechanism of the human mind, deeply part of our conceptual system. This means we use metaphors to understand and experience the world, not just to talk about it. Our abstract ideas—like time, arguments, or love—are mostly understood in terms of more concrete, physical experiences. This conceptual connection shapes our reasoning, decisions, and even our emotional responses, often without us knowing it. Seein...

Supporting evidence

The authors introduce numerous examples of 'conceptual metaphors' like ARGUMENT IS WAR ('He attacked my argument,' 'I shot down his claims'), TIME IS MONEY ('You're wasting my time,' 'How do you spend your time?'), and IDEAS ARE FOOD ('Let me chew on that idea,' 'That's a half-baked idea'). These aren't just figures of speech; they reflect how we structure our understanding of these abstract domains.

Apply this

Become a 'metaphor detective' in your daily life. Pay attention to the metaphors used in news, politics, advertising, and personal conversations. Ask yourself: What underlying conceptual metaphor is at play? How might this metaphor be shaping my perception or the perception of others? This awareness can reveal hidden biases and open up alternative ways of understanding a situation.

conceptual-metaphorcognitive-linguisticsembodied-cognition

The Embodied Roots of Abstract Thought

Our physical experiences form the bedrock for understanding abstract concepts.

Quote
The most important claims we make are that metaphor is not just a matter of language, but of thought and reason. And we argue that human reason is not just disembodied logic, but is significantly shaped by the body.

A main idea in Lakoff and Johnson's theory is 'embodied cognition.' This says our abstract thinking comes from our physical experiences and body interactions with the world. We understand abstract concepts by connecting them to concrete, sensory experiences. For instance, understanding 'more' abstractly is often tied to our physical experience of 'more' as 'up' or 'added.' This means our physical environment and how we move in it directly influence the conceptual structures we create. This makes cognition less about pure logic and mor...

Supporting evidence

The authors discuss 'orientational metaphors' like HAPPY IS UP/SAD IS DOWN ('I'm feeling up,' 'He's feeling down') or MORE IS UP/LESS IS DOWN ('Prices are up,' 'My spirits sank'). These aren't arbitrary; they stem from our basic physical experiences like standing tall when happy or slumping when sad, or seeing piles grow taller as quantity increases. Similarly, the concept of 'understanding' is often mapped onto 'seeing' ('I see what you mean').

Apply this

When trying to grasp a complex abstract idea, consider what physical experiences it might be metaphorically linked to. Can you create a physical analogy or a spatial representation to aid understanding? For example, when explaining a hierarchy, think about 'up' and 'down' or 'above' and 'below.' For 'progress,' think about 'forward motion.' This can make learning more intuitive and sticky.

embodied-cognitionsensorimotor-experienceorientational-metaphors

Metaphors Shape Our Actions

The metaphors we live by aren't just descriptive; they prescribe behavior and influence outcomes.

Quote
Since conceptual metaphors are part of our ordinary conceptual system, they are not just matters of intellect; they are matters of feeling and action as well. And they are therefore matters of politics, economics, and religion.

Beyond shaping our understanding, conceptual metaphors guide our actions and decisions. If we think of 'argument as war,' we are more likely to approach discussions with a competitive mindset. We try to 'win' and 'defeat' opponents rather than collaborate or understand. This affects all parts of life, from personal relationships to political talk and public policy. The metaphors we unconsciously use determine the solutions we consider, the problems we prioritize, and how we interact with the world. Changing a common metaphor can great...

Supporting evidence

Consider the metaphor CRIME IS A VIRUS vs. CRIME IS A BEAST. If crime is a 'virus,' the solution might be to 'inoculate' the community, 'treat' the causes, or 'quarantine' offenders. If crime is a 'beast,' the solution might be to 'cage' it, 'hunt' it down, or 'tame' it. These different metaphors lead to vastly different policy approaches in criminal justice. Similarly, framing a social issue as a 'flood' ('flood of immigrants') implies a natural disaster requiring containment, rather than a human migration with complex causes.

Apply this

Before making a significant decision or engaging in a complex interaction, identify the dominant metaphors you and others are using. Are these metaphors helpful or restrictive? For example, if you're approaching a challenging project using a 'battle' metaphor, try reframing it as a 'journey' or a 'puzzle.' This conscious shift can open up new strategies and foster different emotional responses.

framing-effectssocial-cognitionpolitical-discourse

Controlling the Metaphor, Controlling the Narrative

Whoever establishes the prevailing metaphor often controls the conversation and its possible outcomes.

Quote
The most important political skill is the ability to frame an issue, and the most important framing is done through metaphor.

Because metaphors are so basic to how we understand and act, introducing a metaphor and making it stick is a powerful way to shape public opinion and policy. Political strategists, advertisers, and leaders who successfully frame issues using specific metaphors can set the terms of debate. They highlight certain parts of a problem while hiding others, and subtly guide people toward desired conclusions. This is not just about logical argument; it is about appealing to deeper, often unconscious conceptual structures. Understanding this i...

Supporting evidence

Lakoff frequently cites political examples. For instance, the 'tax relief' metaphor frames taxes as a burden or affliction from which citizens need 'relief,' implicitly making tax cuts sound inherently good and tax increases inherently bad, without needing to make an explicit argument. Similarly, 'pro-life' vs. 'pro-choice' are powerful metaphorical frames that define the abortion debate, each carrying a host of moral and emotional associations that are difficult to overcome.

Apply this

When consuming news or political speeches, actively question the metaphors being used. What perspective do they highlight? What do they hide? What alternative metaphors could be used, and how would those change the meaning or implications? Don't just accept the frame; dissect it and consider its strategic intent. Develop your own counter-metaphors to reframe discussions.

framingrhetoricpersuasionideology

New Metaphors Create New Realities

The invention and adoption of novel metaphors can fundamentally alter our understanding and experience of the world.

Quote
New metaphors are capable of creating new understanding and, therefore, new realities.

Many metaphors are common and deeply ingrained, but our ability to create new metaphors drives change and innovation. When a new metaphor is introduced and becomes popular, it can show new connections, offer fresh perspectives, and even change how we see reality. Think of scientific discoveries, art movements, or philosophical shifts—they often come with new metaphors that let us think about things in very different ways. This creative potential shows how dynamic and evolving our conceptual systems are.

Supporting evidence

The authors discuss how scientific progress often involves new metaphors. For example, understanding the atom 'as a solar system' (with electrons orbiting a nucleus) was a novel metaphor that allowed physicists to conceptualize its structure, even if it was later refined. Similarly, the computer metaphor for the brain ('the brain is a computer') revolutionized neuroscience, even as its limitations are now recognized. These metaphors weren't just descriptions; they were tools for understanding and further investigation.

Apply this

Actively seek out and explore new metaphors in your field or personal life. If you're stuck on a problem, try to describe it using an entirely different, perhaps unconventional, metaphor. For instance, if you're managing a team, instead of 'leading a battalion,' try 'curating a garden' or 'conducting an orchestra.' This can unlock creative solutions and foster different leadership styles. Encourage metaphorical thinking in brainstorming sessions.

creativityinnovationparadigm-shiftconceptual-change

Coherence and Inconsistency

Our conceptual systems strive for coherence, but can contain conflicting metaphors.

Quote
Conceptual metaphors are not merely arbitrary; they are systematic. They structure our understanding of one domain in terms of another.

Our conceptual system is not a random collection of metaphors; it is highly organized and aims for consistency. When we use a metaphor like ARGUMENT IS WAR, many related concepts (tactics, attack, defense, victory) become available and form a consistent system. However, the authors also note that different metaphors can exist for the same concept, sometimes leading to inconsistencies or conflicting understandings. For example, 'love is a journey' and 'love is a physical force' offer very different, yet simultaneously held, understandi...

Supporting evidence

Consider the concept of 'love.' We have 'love is a journey' ('We've come a long way together,' 'Our relationship is at a crossroads') and 'love is a physical force' ('I was swept off my feet,' 'There's a strong current between us'). Both are valid and frequently used, yet they offer different entailments and implications for how we experience and talk about love. The 'journey' metaphor implies effort, progress, and shared experience, while the 'physical force' metaphor implies being acted upon, intensity, and perhaps less agency.

Apply this

When analyzing a concept, try to identify multiple dominant metaphors that might apply. How do these different metaphors shape your understanding? Where do they align, and where do they conflict? Understanding these metaphorical tensions can provide a richer, more nuanced perspective on complex issues and help you anticipate different interpretations from others.

conceptual-systemscognitive-coherencemetaphorical-pluralism

The Danger of Unexamined Metaphors

Uncritically accepting dominant metaphors can limit our thinking and perpetuate harmful biases.

Quote
The very systematicity that allows us to comprehend one aspect of experience in terms of another will necessarily hide other aspects of the experience.

While metaphors help us understand, they are also selective. Every metaphor highlights certain parts of a concept while hiding others. This 'hiding' function can be dangerous when not examined. It can lead to blind spots, narrow thinking, and the continuation of harmful biases or old ideas. For instance, if we only see education as 'filling a vessel,' we miss the active, constructive role of the learner. Being aware of the limits and hidden effects of our metaphors is important for intellectual growth and social progress. The book tel...

Supporting evidence

The authors illustrate how the ARGUMENT IS WAR metaphor, while providing structure, hides the cooperative aspects of argument, such as jointly exploring a topic or reaching mutual understanding. It frames the goal as 'winning' rather than 'learning.' Similarly, the metaphor of 'the mind as a machine' can obscure the emotional, intuitive, and embodied aspects of human cognition, leading to a reductionist view of humanity. These metaphors aren't inherently bad, but their uncritical adoption limits our perspective.

Apply this

Regularly question the dominant metaphors in your personal and professional life. What aspects of reality are being highlighted, and what is being ignored or downplayed? For instance, if your company uses a 'family' metaphor, does it hide issues of hierarchy, lack of formal boundaries, or professionalism? Actively seek out alternative metaphors to broaden your understanding and challenge assumptions.

critical-thinkingcognitive-biasunconscious-biasreductionism

Beyond Literal vs. Figurative

The distinction between literal and figurative language is often blurred by conceptual metaphors.

Quote
We have found that the categories of literal and figurative language are not nearly as distinct as has been commonly assumed.

Traditional linguistics often separates 'literal' language (describing things as they are) from 'figurative' language (metaphorical, poetic). Lakoff and Johnson say this distinction is often false. Many expressions we think are 'literal' are actually 'dead metaphors'—so ingrained in our conceptual system that their metaphorical origin is no longer recognized. For example, 'understanding' a concept by 'grasping' it might seem literal, but it is built on the conceptual metaphor IDEAS ARE OBJECTS YOU CAN MANIPULATE. This suggests metapho...

Supporting evidence

Consider phrases like 'I see what you mean,' 'the bottom line,' 'get to the point,' or 'fall in love.' These are often considered literal, yet they are all rooted in conceptual metaphors (KNOWING IS SEEING, ARGUMENT IS A JOURNEY, LOVE IS A FALLING OBJECT). The 'deadness' of these metaphors means we don't consciously process them as metaphors, but their underlying structure still influences our understanding. The authors contend that truly literal language might be far rarer than we assume.

Apply this

Challenge your own assumptions about what constitutes 'literal' language. When you encounter a phrase that seems straightforward, try to uncover its metaphorical roots. This exercise can deepen your appreciation for the richness and complexity of everyday language and reveal how deeply metaphor shapes even our most basic expressions.

dead-metaphorlinguistic-relativitysemanticspragmatics

Culture and Metaphor Intertwined

Shared conceptual metaphors reveal and reinforce cultural values and beliefs.

Quote
The most important aspects of our experience are structured by metaphors, and these metaphors are not random; they are systematic and often reflect our culture.

Conceptual metaphors are not just individual mental ideas; they are often shared within a culture. They reflect and strengthen its values, beliefs, and social structures. The metaphors a society uses to talk about success, family, morality, or justice show much about its worldview. For instance, a culture that mostly uses 'life is a journey' might value progress, change, and individual paths. One that emphasizes 'life is a cycle' might value tradition, recurrence, and community. Understanding these culturally specific metaphors is key...

Supporting evidence

The authors discuss how different cultures might conceptualize time. While many Western cultures view TIME AS A RESOURCE or TIME IS MONEY, leading to phrases like 'saving time' or 'spending time,' some other cultures might have different, more cyclical or less linear conceptualizations. Similarly, the 'family' metaphor for a nation ('motherland,' 'founding fathers') reflects a specific set of cultural values and expectations regarding national identity and loyalty.

Apply this

When interacting with people from different cultural backgrounds, pay close attention to the metaphors they use. How do these metaphors differ from your own? What do they reveal about their underlying values or worldview? This awareness can prevent misunderstandings and foster more effective and empathetic communication. Try to articulate the dominant metaphors of your own culture to gain self-awareness.

cultural-relativismcross-cultural-communicationsociolinguisticsworldview

The Power of Re-Metaphorization

Consciously choosing and creating metaphors can be a tool for personal and societal change.

Quote
If new metaphors can create new realities, then a change in our conceptual system can change what is real for us.

The main idea of 'Metaphors We Live By' is that since our realities are built metaphorically, we are not just passive receivers of these structures. We can critically examine the metaphors we use, challenge those that limit or harm, and consciously create new ones. This 're-metaphorization' is a powerful tool for personal growth, solving problems, and driving social change. By choosing to frame challenges as 'opportunities' rather than 'burdens,' or relationships as 'partnerships' rather than 'competitions,' we can change our percepti...

Supporting evidence

Consider a person struggling with a difficult illness. If they adopt the metaphor ILLNESS IS A BATTLE, they might feel a need to 'fight' and 'win,' potentially leading to feelings of failure if the illness progresses. If they adopt a metaphor like ILLNESS IS A JOURNEY or ILLNESS IS A TEACHER, their approach might shift towards adaptation, learning, or finding meaning, leading to a different psychological experience. Similarly, social movements often succeed by introducing powerful new metaphors that reframe an issue (e.g., 'climate change' vs. 'global warming').

Apply this

Identify a recurring challenge or area of struggle in your life. What metaphors are you (or others) using to describe it? Are those metaphors serving you well? Experiment with consciously adopting a different, more empowering or productive metaphor. For instance, if you view your career as a 'ladder,' try viewing it as a 'garden' to cultivate or a 'river' to navigate. Regularly reflect on how these new metaphors shift your perspective and behavior.

reframingself-awarenesspersonal-developmentsocial-change

Critical analysis

Notable Quotes

“Metaphor is not just a figure of speech. It is a mode of thought.”

— Introducing the central argument about metaphor's cognitive role.

“Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature.”

— Explaining the pervasive nature of metaphor in everyday thought.

“The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.”

— Defining the core mechanism of metaphorical thought.

“Argument is war.”

— Presenting one of the book's most famous examples of a conceptual metaphor.

“New metaphors are capable of creating new understanding and, therefore, new realities.”

— Discussing the transformative power of novel metaphors.

“Truth, as it is used in ordinary language, is always relative to a conceptual system.”

— Challenging an absolute view of truth in light of metaphorical frameworks.

“We don't just talk about arguments as if they were wars. We actually win or lose arguments.”

— Illustrating how conceptual metaphors structure our actions and experiences.

“Understanding a domain in terms of a metaphor is a partial understanding.”

— Acknowledging the inherent limitations and selective nature of metaphorical mappings.

“Most of our fundamental concepts are organized in terms of one or more spatialization metaphors.”

— Highlighting the prevalence and importance of spatial metaphors in cognition.

“The very systematicity that allows us to comprehend one aspect of a concept in terms of another (e.g., the 'argument is war' metaphor allowing us to comprehend attacking a position) will necessarily hide other aspects of the concept.”

— Explaining the 'highlighting and hiding' function of metaphors.

“The concepts that govern our thought are not just matters of the intellect. They also govern our everyday functioning, down to the most mundane details.”

— Emphasizing the deep, practical impact of conceptual systems on daily life.

“Metaphor is a device for seeing something as if it were something else.”

— A concise summary of metaphor's function in perception and understanding.

“The way we think, what we experience, and what we do every day is very much a matter of metaphor.”

— A powerful statement on the pervasive influence of metaphor on human existence.

“Scientific theories are often attempts to make sense of some aspects of reality, and they do so by means of metaphor.”

— Applying the concept of metaphor to the construction of scientific understanding.

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Key Questions (FAQ)

The core concept of 'Metaphors We Live By' is that metaphor is not merely a linguistic flourish but a fundamental mechanism of human thought. It argues that we understand abstract concepts by mapping them onto more concrete, often physical, experiences, and these conceptual metaphors deeply influence our perceptions and actions.