Mary Renault (1956)
Genre
Historical Fiction / Romance
Reading Time
500 min
Key Themes
See below
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During Athens' golden age, two wrestling friends navigate their city's athletic contests, the Olympic games, and the Peloponnesian War, their bond growing under Socrates's questioning gaze.
Alexias, a sensitive boy from a distinguished Athenian family, begins his formal education and physical training. He quickly develops admiration for Lysis, an older, more athletic, and charismatic boy. Lysis, son of a wealthy merchant, is already a celebrated athlete. Their relationship, at first an admirer and mentor, becomes a close bond. Alexias struggles with the training, often feeling less capable than Lysis, but Lysis's encouragement helps him. This early period sets their intertwined lives against Athenian society, where male companionship and athletic skill are valued.
Alexias, now a young man, travels with Lysis and their household to Olympia for the quadrennial games. He experiences the festival's grandeur. Lysis, competing in the pankration, a martial art, trains intensely and wins, becoming an Olympic champion. Alexias, not a competitor, feels great pride. The games show Greek culture's physical ideals, the rivalry between city-states, and the sacrifices for glory. This experience strengthens the bond between Alexias and Lysis.
Back in Athens, Alexias and Lysis visit the agora where philosophers gather. They join Socrates's circle. His questioning and search for truth captivate Alexias, though Lysis is more skeptical. Socrates challenges their ideas of virtue, justice, and the good life, often showing the shallowness of common beliefs. Alexias, introspective, finds Socrates's teachings influential. Lysis, more practical, grapples with abstract philosophy. This period marks an intellectual awakening for Alexias, shaping his worldview.
The tensions between Athens and Sparta lead to the Peloponnesian War. Alexias and Lysis, like all Athenian citizens, are called to military service. Their philosophical discussions and athletic pursuits are replaced by the realities of training and combat. Alexias, at first worried about war, learns to endure a hoplite's life. Lysis, with his leadership and strength, excels as a soldier. The war affects Athens, disrupting daily life and forcing the young men to face death and civic duty. Their bond is tested and strengthened by shared dangers.
During the war's early years, a plague strikes Athens, killing many people. Alexias and Lysis see the epidemic's horrors: suffering, moral decline, and social breakdown. Many friends die. Alexias, despite his own risk, cares for the sick, showing courage. Lysis also faces death on a large scale. The plague leaves a mark on survivors, creating cynicism and despair, and affecting Athens's philosophical and political mood. The city's strength is tested, and the future is uncertain.
The war continues with changing fortunes. Alexias and Lysis serve in several campaigns, experiencing battle. They participate in naval and land engagements, seeing Athenian leaders' strategies and mistakes. Alexias suffers personal losses, including family and friends, which deepens his understanding of human weakness and war's futility. Lysis, always protective, comforts Alexias. Their shared combat experiences create a stronger connection, built on mutual trust when facing death.
Alexias, now an experienced soldier, is part of the Athenian expedition to Sicily, a bold and disastrous venture. Hopes for glory turn into a long, brutal siege. Alexias endures harsh conditions, strategic errors, and mounting casualties. The expedition ends in a defeat for Athens, with the fleet and army destroyed or captured. Alexias, through luck and resilience, survives the defeat and captivity, seeing the destruction of Athenian power. This experience is a turning point, marking the end of Athenian dominance and leaving Alexias scarred.
After the disaster in Sicily, Alexias returns to Athens, a city changed by war and plague. The once-proud polis is weary, poor, and politically divided. Democracy is strained, and cynicism is common. Alexias finds Lysis, who also survived the war, but both men are altered. Their youth and innocence are gone, replaced by the realities of survival and loss. The philosophical discussions of their youth seem distant, replaced by questions of political survival and moral compromise in a city struggling to keep its identity.
After Athens' defeat in the Peloponnesian War, a Spartan-imposed regime, the Thirty Tyrants, takes power. This period includes brutality, political purges, and the end of democratic freedoms. Many citizens, including friends of Alexias and Lysis, are executed or exiled without trial. Alexias is horrified by the injustice, while Lysis navigates the political landscape. Socrates, though not political, becomes a target. This regime forces moral choices, showing justice's fragility and power's corrupting influence, deeply affecting Alexias's sense of civic duty.
After democracy is restored, the political mood remains unstable. Socrates, despite his service to Athens and his search for truth, is accused of impiety and corrupting the youth. Alexias, with other students, attends the trial, seeing the injustice and flawed accusations. Socrates, true to his principles, refuses to compromise, giving a defense that seals his fate. He is condemned to death. This event devastates Alexias, who sees it as a betrayal of Athenian ideals and a loss of the greatest moral voice of his time. Socrates's execution leaves a mark on Alexias, strengthening his commitment to philosophical inquiry and his disappointment with political power.
After Socrates's execution and the Peloponnesian War, Alexias struggles to find his place in a world that has lost much of its former glory and moral certainty. He continues to grapple with Socrates's philosophical questions, trying to live a virtuous life in a society dealing with its failures. His bond with Lysis, though matured, remains a constant source of strength. They share a history of experiences, joys, and losses. Alexias, through his reflective nature, tries to preserve Socrates's legacy and understand their tumultuous times, looking to the future with wisdom and acceptance.
The Protagonist
Alexias evolves from an admiring youth into a mature, philosophical man, shaped by love, war, and the tragic loss of his mentor, Socrates.
The Supporting/Love Interest
Lysis matures from a celebrated youth to a hardened warrior, maintaining his integrity and loyalty amidst war and political upheaval.
The Supporting/Mentor
Socrates's arc is largely historical, culminating in his tragic trial and execution, which serves as a moral climax for the protagonist.
The Supporting/Antagonist (indirect)
Alcibiades experiences a dramatic rise and fall from power, demonstrating the perils of unchecked ambition and political opportunism.
The Supporting/Antagonist
Critias's arc is one of moral degeneration, from a promising intellectual to a brutal dictator.
The Supporting
Phaedo remains a consistent figure of philosophical companionship, a witness to the profound events of his time.
The Supporting
Charmides's arc reflects the vulnerability of even well-intentioned individuals to the political forces of their era.
The novel explores love and friendship in ancient Greece, especially *philia* (deep friendship, loyalty) and *eros* (passionate love, often with a teaching or spiritual aspect). The relationship between Alexias and Lysis shows this, growing from admiration to a lifelong bond that includes affection and intimacy. Their love is tested by war, plague, and political change, yet it remains a constant source of strength. The novel shows this bond as a basic part of Athenian male society, often tied to athletic and intellectual pursuits.
““There are many kinds of love, as there are many kinds of wine. But there is only one true love, and that is the love of a friend.””
Socrates's influence and his search for truth and virtue (*arete*) are central to the novel. Through Socrates's teachings, Alexias learns to question common beliefs, examine moral ideas, and aim for an honest life. This theme appears in discussions where Socrates challenges his students to define justice, courage, and the good. Socrates's tragic trial and execution show the conflict between philosophical truth and political convenience, highlighting the dangers for those who question norms. Alexias's continued adherence to Socratic principles after his mentor's death shows the lasting power of this pursuit.
““The unexamined life is not worth living.””
The novel shows the decline of Athenian democracy and its ideals. Beginning with the golden age, the story follows Athens through the Peloponnesian War, the plague, the Sicilian Expedition, and the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. These events erode the city's power, wealth, and morality. The corruption of leaders like Alcibiades and Critias, the moral decay during the plague, and Socrates's unjust trial all contribute to this theme. Alexias, as an observer, experiences the disillusionment that comes with the loss of civic virtue and a great civilization's collapse, reflecting on what was lost.
““We were like men watching the slow ruin of a beloved house, unable to stop it.””
The Peloponnesian War is more than a backdrop; it shapes the characters and the city. The novel shows the realities of hoplite warfare, strategic mistakes, and the human cost. The plague, a direct result of war conditions, increases suffering, leading to death and a breakdown of social order. Alexias and Lysis mature quickly, facing death, loss, and life's fragility. The war's psychological scars are clear in the characters' changed views and the weariness that settles over Athens, showing how conflict changes individuals and societies.
““War, which makes men beasts, had also taught them a terrible kind of wisdom.””
Throughout the story, characters consider whether their lives are determined by fate, divine will, or their own choices. The historical events of the Peloponnesian War and the plague often feel like an overwhelming force, beyond individual control. Yet, characters like Socrates show free will and moral choice, choosing death over abandoning his principles. Alexias and Lysis, while caught in history's currents, also make choices about loyalty, love, and ideals. The theme explores the tension between accepting destiny and actively shaping one's character, especially in a world where the gods' influence is still felt.
““The gods spin the threads of our lives, but we ourselves must weave the pattern.””
Weaving in real historical figures, events, and cultural practices to ground the narrative.
Renault meticulously incorporates historical figures like Socrates, Alcibiades, and Critias, along with major events such as the Peloponnesian War, the plague of Athens, the Sicilian Expedition, and the rule of the Thirty Tyrants. This device provides a rich, authentic backdrop for the fictional narrative, lending credibility and depth to the story. It also allows the reader to understand the profound impact of these real-world events on the lives of ordinary (and extraordinary) Athenians, showcasing the cultural nuances of the palaestra, the symposium, and Athenian civic life. The accuracy of the historical detail immerses the reader in the world of classical Athens.
The story is told through the subjective lens of Alexias, providing intimate insight into his experiences.
The novel is narrated in the first person by Alexias. This narrative choice allows for an intimate and deeply personal exploration of the protagonist's emotional and intellectual development. Through Alexias's eyes, the reader experiences his admiration and love for Lysis, his intellectual awakening under Socrates, and his profound reactions to the war, plague, and political turmoil. This subjective viewpoint emphasizes his sensitivity, his introspective nature, and his struggle to make sense of a changing world, making his personal journey the emotional core of the historical epic. It allows for a focus on inner life amidst grand external events.
The dynamic between an older, wiser figure and a younger, learning one drives character development.
This device is prominent in two key relationships: Lysis's initial mentorship of Alexias in the palaestra and Socrates's intellectual and moral mentorship of Alexias. In the first instance, Lysis's strength and guidance help Alexias overcome his physical insecurities. In the second, Socrates's dialectical method and pursuit of truth profoundly shape Alexias's worldview and moral compass. These relationships are crucial for Alexias's growth, providing him with both physical and intellectual fortitude, and serving as a mechanism for imparting cultural values and philosophical ideas to both Alexias and, by extension, the reader. The loss of the mentor figure (Socrates) marks a significant turning point.
Wine symbolizes shared experience, memory, and the passage of time and wisdom.
The title itself, 'The Last of the Wine,' hints at this pervasive symbol. Wine in ancient Greece was deeply intertwined with social gatherings (symposia), friendship, and philosophical discussion. It symbolizes the shared experiences, the memories, and the deepening bond between Alexias and Lysis, as well as the intellectual ferment of Socrates's circle. As the novel progresses and Athens declines, the 'last of the wine' can be interpreted as the fading glory, the end of an era, and the bittersweet preservation of precious memories and wisdom. It evokes a sense of nostalgia, the passage of time, and the enduring legacy of what was once cherished and consumed.
“There are some things in life you cannot buy. You can buy the house, but not the home. You can buy the bed, but not the sleep. You can buy the book, but not the knowledge. You can buy the food, but not the appetite.”
— Set in ancient Athens, a character reflects on the limitations of wealth.
“Love is not a thing, it is a process. It is not an object to be possessed, but a garden to be tended.”
— A discussion about the nature of love and relationships, often between Lysis and Alexias.
“To be truly free, one must be master of oneself.”
— A recurring theme, particularly in discussions about self-control and discipline within Athenian society.
“The gods do not help those who do not help themselves.”
— A common saying reflecting the Athenian emphasis on personal responsibility and action.
“Courage is not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it.”
— Often spoken in the context of military training or facing personal challenges.
“Memory is a treacherous thing. It can preserve what we wish to forget and erase what we wish to remember.”
— A character's internal reflection on past events and the unreliability of memory.
“There are many kinds of courage. The courage to fight, the courage to endure, the courage to forgive.”
— A broader definition of courage discussed among friends, moving beyond just battlefield valor.
“Beauty is a gift, but character is a choice.”
— A character pondering the difference between inherent traits and cultivated virtues.
“The greatest battles are often fought within oneself.”
— An observation on internal struggles and personal growth, especially relevant to the main characters' journeys.
“Friendship is a ship that can sail through any storm.”
— Emphasizing the strong bonds of friendship and loyalty in a time of political upheaval.
“To live without purpose is to drift without a rudder.”
— A philosophical discussion about the importance of having goals and direction in life.
“The past is a lesson, not a prison.”
— A character encouraging another to move past old grievances or mistakes.
“Even in defeat, there can be honor.”
— Reflecting on the Peloponnesian War and the way Athenians faced their losses.
“The truest measure of a man is not how he stands in moments of comfort and convenience, but how he stands at times of challenge and controversy.”
— A mentor figure imparting wisdom to a younger pupil, perhaps Socrates-like.
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