Leslie Marmon Silko (1977)
Genre
Literary Fiction / Historical Fiction
Reading Time
360 min
Key Themes
See below
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Haunted by war and alienation, a young Laguna Pueblo veteran seeks healing through ancient traditions and stories to overcome despair.
Tayo, a half-white, half-Laguna Pueblo man, comes home to the Laguna reservation in New Mexico after fighting in World War II and being held as a Japanese prisoner of war. He has deep trauma, suffering from 'battle fatigue' (PTSD), and struggles with the deaths of his cousin Rocky and his uncle Josiah. Rocky died in the Philippines, a memory that constantly bothers Tayo, especially the image of Rocky's body rotting in the mud. Josiah's death from influenza back home also affects him. Tayo feels sick, vomits, and feels very isolated. He finds no comfort among his family or other returning veterans who use alcohol and destructive behavior to cope. He feels disconnected from the world and his own people, believing he is cursed or somehow responsible for bad things.
Tayo's family, especially his Auntie, tries to help, but their efforts are limited. He goes to a Veterans Administration hospital, where white doctors call his condition 'melancholia' and 'schizophrenia'. They try to treat him with sedatives and talk therapy. But Tayo knows his sickness is not just physical or psychological in the Western way; it is a spiritual problem from a deeper imbalance. The doctors' methods do not address the cultural and spiritual parts of his trauma. Tayo continues to get worse, spending his days in a haze of alcohol and despair with his friends Emo, Harley, and Leroy, who are also struggling veterans and often act recklessly and violently.
During a night of heavy drinking with Emo, Harley, and Leroy at a bar, Tayo's emotional pain comes out. He tries to talk about his grief and the horrors he saw, but Emo, who is bitter, mocks him, dismisses his suffering, and even shows off teeth from Japanese soldiers he keeps as souvenirs. This further disrespects the war's memory for Tayo. This causes Tayo to lash out violently, trying to stab Emo with a broken bottle. The fight makes Tayo feel more alone from his friends, who see him as weak and 'crazy.' In this chaotic moment, Tayo has a vivid hallucination of Josiah and Rocky. While painful, it suggests a path toward spiritual understanding, showing his connection to the land and his ancestors is still there.
Seeing that Western medicine is limited and his current path is useless, Tayo's grandmother, sensing his deep spiritual sickness, suggests he talk to Ku'oosh, an old Laguna medicine man. Ku'oosh performs a traditional ceremony for Tayo, speaking in the old language and using ancient rituals. The ceremony offers some temporary relief and a feeling of belonging, but it is not enough to fully cure Tayo's deep trauma. Ku'oosh explains that Tayo's sickness is complex and needs a new, more complete ceremony, one that must be 'fixed' or changed for the unique circumstances of the modern world and Tayo's specific suffering. This is a turning point, as Tayo begins to actively seek healing through his cultural heritage.
Following Ku'oosh's advice, Tayo travels to the edge of Gallup, New Mexico, to find Betonie, a Navajo-Mexican medicine man. Betonie is an unusual healer, living in a run-down hogan filled with calendars, junk, and symbols of both traditional and modern life. He is mixed-blood like Tayo, which makes him able to understand Tayo's broken identity and the challenges of adapting old traditions to a modern, post-war world. Betonie immediately recognizes the 'witchery' affecting Tayo and the world. He explains that the old ceremonies are no longer enough because the world has changed. He tells Tayo he must take part in a new, evolving ceremony that involves a journey and specific tasks.
Betonie tells Tayo to go on a quest that will be the main part of his ceremony: finding Josiah's lost cattle. Before the war, Josiah had bought a herd of Mexican cattle, different from the local breeds, planning to raise them for profit. These cattle, representing Josiah's dreams and connection to the land, were scattered during a drought. Tayo's search for them becomes a symbolic journey. It forces him to reconnect with the land, its cycles, and its stories. This quest takes him into the large, harsh landscape of the Laguna Pueblo lands and beyond, away from the destructive influences of his drinking friends and into a deeper connection with nature and his ancestral heritage. The cattle represent not just a physical loss, but a spiritual one Tayo must get back.
While searching for the cattle, Tayo meets a mysterious and beautiful Ute woman named Ts'eh. She lives peacefully with nature, tending a hidden garden and embodying the land's spirit. Ts'eh becomes a spiritual guide and lover for Tayo, teaching him about how all living things connect, the importance of patience, and the sacredness of the earth. She helps him understand life and death cycles and how to read nature's signs. Their relationship is spiritual, giving Tayo comfort, understanding, and a strong sense of belonging he has missed since the war. Ts'eh represents the earth's feminine power and nature's healing ability.
Tayo's quest leads him to a ranch owned by white men who have rounded up Josiah's Mexican cattle, branding them as their own. Tayo confronts the ranchers, risking his life to get back what belongs to his family and, by extension, his heritage. This encounter shows the ongoing conflict between Indigenous peoples and white settlers over land, resources, and cultural identity. Tayo's ability to outwit the ranchers and get the cattle back, despite the danger, is a big step in his personal growth and his ability to deal with the complexities of a world run by white institutions while keeping his cultural values. He learns to use his intelligence and knowledge of the land to succeed where direct confrontation would fail.
During his journey, Tayo meets a mountain lion. Instead of being afraid, he feels a deep connection and respect for the animal, understanding its place in nature. This moment shows Tayo's growing connection to the wild parts of the natural world and his letting go of the fear and isolation that had troubled him. The mountain lion is a strong symbol in Native American cultures, representing strength, wisdom, and protection. This encounter shows Tayo's progress in his ceremony. He sees himself as part of the larger web of life, not separate from it, and draws strength from the land itself.
As the ceremony nears its end, Tayo faces his biggest test. Emo, filled with bitterness and representing the 'witchery' that tries to destroy Indigenous people from within, tries to ambush and kill Tayo at the old uranium mine. Emo, with Harley and Leroy, tortures Pinkie, another veteran, before Tayo's expected fate. Tayo hides and watches, fighting the strong urge for revenge and violence. But remembering Betonie's lessons and how all things connect, Tayo resists the urge to kill Emo. He understands that giving in to violence would complete Emo's destructive ceremony and continue the cycle of hatred. By choosing not to kill, Tayo breaks the witchery's spell and finishes his own healing ceremony.
After avoiding Emo's trap and seeing his former friends' destruction, Tayo spends the night on the mountain, watching the sunrise. He returns to the Pueblo at dawn, feeling peaceful and clear. He tells his experiences to the elders, including Ku'oosh and his grandmother, who confirm his ceremony's success. Tayo has not only healed himself but has also brought back a new understanding of the old ways and their place in the modern world. He is no longer isolated but integrated, having found his place within the community and the cosmic order. His journey has confirmed his culture's lasting power and the land's ability to heal and support.
The Protagonist
Tayo transforms from a broken, alienated veteran into a healed individual who reconnects with his cultural heritage and finds his place in the world, breaking the cycle of despair.
The Supporting
Rocky's arc is cut short by his death, serving as a tragic symbol of the unfulfilled promise of assimilation and a catalyst for Tayo's journey.
The Supporting
Josiah's physical presence is lost early, but his spirit and values guide Tayo's entire quest, symbolizing the enduring power of ancestral wisdom.
The Supporting
Auntie remains largely unchanged, representing the rigid adherence to certain social and religious norms that contribute to Tayo's initial alienation.
The Supporting
Grandmother remains a steady source of traditional wisdom and support, a constant guiding force for Tayo.
The Supporting
Ku'oosh acts as a bridge, connecting Tayo to traditional practices and then guiding him towards the necessary evolution of those practices.
The Supporting
Betonie serves as the primary catalyst for Tayo's transformation, providing the intellectual and spiritual framework for his healing.
The Supporting
Ts'eh appears to Tayo at a crucial juncture, guiding his spiritual awakening and deepening his connection to the natural world, then disappears once her role is complete.
The Antagonist
Emo remains trapped in his bitterness and destructive path, serving as a foil to Tayo's healing and a representation of the 'witchery' Tayo must overcome.
The main theme is healing from deep trauma, especially through a traditional Native American ceremony. Tayo's journey shows that healing is not just physical or psychological, but spiritual. It needs a strong reconnection to cultural heritage, land, and community. Betonie's 'new' ceremony stresses that tradition must adapt to address modern problems like war trauma and cultural isolation. The ceremony is not a single event but an ongoing process of discovery and reintegration, as seen in Tayo's search for the cattle and his encounters with Ts'eh and the mountain lion, all contributing to his spiritual repair.
“The only cure they knew was a ceremony, and the only ceremony they could perform was a going-on ceremony, a continuing process that brought about a reconciliation with the earth.”
Tayo's mixed-blood background and his war experiences in a white-dominated world create a deep crisis of identity and belonging. He feels separate from both white society and, at first, from his own Pueblo community. The novel looks at the struggle to define oneself when faced with cultural assimilation and war trauma. Tayo's healing journey is a quest to reclaim his Indigenous identity, understand his place within the Laguna cosmos, and find a sense of belonging not just to people, but to the land itself. His eventual integration shows how important cultural roots are for a stable and healthy self-concept.
“He had come to believe that only the ceremonies understood the things he had seen and felt.”
Silko skillfully includes traditional Laguna stories, myths, and poems throughout the narrative. She shows their role in shaping reality, passing on knowledge, and providing a way to understand and heal. These stories are not just entertainment; they are living things that connect past, present, and future, offering guidance and meaning. Betonie explains that 'witchery' can be understood and defeated through stories, and Tayo's own journey becomes a new story, a living ceremony. Storytelling, by the narrator and by characters like Betonie and Tayo, is a powerful, healing force that keeps culture continuous and strong.
“The stories were not for their entertainment; they were for their lives.”
The idea of 'witchery' is central to the novel. It represents not just individual evil but a widespread, harmful force that causes division, despair, and cultural destruction. This 'witchery' appears in colonialism, racism, war, and the self-destructive behaviors (alcoholism, violence) some Native Americans adopt. Emo embodies this destructive force, trying to keep hatred and division going. The novel argues that 'witchery' is a global problem, coming from those who seek power through destruction. Tayo's ceremony directly opposes this force, aiming to bring back balance and harmony. The atomic bomb, built on ancestral lands, is a strong symbol of ultimate witchery.
“They see no life in the land. They see only resources. They see only what they can take. The witchery works through them.”
The Laguna landscape is not just a setting but a living, sacred thing connected to Tayo's spiritual well-being. His healing is directly tied to his renewed engagement with the land, its cycles, and its creatures. The quest for Josiah's cattle makes Tayo travel the land, learning to read its signs and connect with its spirit. His relationship with Ts'eh, who represents the earth, further deepens this bond. The novel shows that disrespect for the land, like the uranium mines and the white ranchers, causes spiritual sickness and imbalance. True healing comes from understanding and respecting the connection between humans and the natural world.
“He had arrived at a place where the only thing he could feel was the earth, the earth that had been waiting for him.”
Interweaves past trauma with present-day healing journey.
The novel frequently shifts between Tayo's present-day experiences on the reservation and his vivid, traumatic memories of World War II, particularly the death of Rocky and his time as a prisoner of war. These flashbacks are often triggered by sensory details or emotional states, mirroring Tayo's fragmented mental state. This non-linear structure blurs the lines between past and present, emphasizing how deeply Tayo's trauma is embedded in his psyche and how his past continually informs his present struggle for healing. It also reflects the cyclical nature of time in Native American cosmology, where past events are always present.
Integrates ancient myths and poems to provide context and spiritual guidance.
Throughout the narrative, Silko includes passages of traditional Laguna Pueblo poetry, myths, and creation stories. These oral traditions are not merely decorative but serve as a crucial narrative device. They provide a deeper cultural context for Tayo's struggles, explain the concept of 'witchery,' and offer a framework for understanding the healing ceremony. The stories often parallel Tayo's experiences, suggesting that his modern trauma is a continuation of ancient struggles and that ancient wisdom holds the key to resolution. This device emphasizes the power of storytelling and oral tradition in maintaining cultural identity and providing spiritual guidance.
Uses natural elements and animals to represent spiritual states and cultural connections.
Various symbols enrich the narrative: Josiah's Mexican cattle represent a blend of tradition and modernity, a connection to the land, and a hope for the future that Tayo must reclaim. The mountain lion symbolizes strength, wisdom, and Tayo's re-integration with the natural world. Weather patterns, especially drought and rain, reflect Tayo's spiritual state and the health of the land, linking his personal healing to the ecological balance. These symbols are deeply rooted in Native American cosmology, imbuing the physical world with spiritual significance and guiding Tayo's journey.
The entire novel functions as a healing ceremony for both character and reader.
Beyond being a plot point, the concept of 'ceremony' functions as a meta-narrative device. The entire novel itself, through its structure, themes, and language, becomes a ceremony for Tayo and, by extension, for the reader. Betonie's idea of a 'new' ceremony, adapted for modern times, mirrors Silko's own act of writing 'Ceremony' as a contemporary expression of traditional healing narratives. The act of reading and engaging with Tayo's story is intended to be a transformative, healing experience, reinforcing the novel's central message about the power of stories and cultural continuity for survival and well-being.
Highlights the necessity of bridging cultural divides for healing in a complex world.
The character of Betonie, a Navajo-Mexican medicine man, is a key plot device representing the adaptation of traditional healing to a world fractured by colonialism and war. His mixed heritage allows him to understand Tayo's own dual identity. Tayo himself, as a mixed-blood Laguna, embodies this same bridge. This device suggests that healing in the modern world requires embracing complexity and integrating different perspectives, rather than rigidly adhering to 'pure' traditions. It emphasizes that those who exist between worlds are uniquely positioned to forge new paths and ceremonies for collective healing, making Tayo's journey universally resonant.
“He cried the way all the world was crying, and the rain came with it, a deluge from the sky that poured for days, washing out the roads and flooding the arroyos, carrying away everything, leaving nothing behind but a slick of mud and a bad smell.”
— Tayo's grief and the overwhelming rain mirroring it after the war.
“The only cure they knew was ceremony, and the only ceremony they knew was the mountain. The mountain was the ceremony, the only one that could heal the land and the people.”
— Reflecting on the traditional Pueblo understanding of healing.
“He had to get back to the land, back to the ceremonies, back to the people. He had to remember what it was to be a human being, a human being among other human beings.”
— Tayo's realization of what he needs for recovery.
“The world was an inseparable web of all its components, and a change in one of them, no matter how small, affected the whole.”
— Describing the interconnectedness of all things in the Pueblo worldview.
“Nothing was ever lost, not really. The wind would carry it, the rain would wash it, the sun would dry it, and the earth would hold it.”
— A reflection on the cycles of nature and the endurance of life.
“The white people had their books and their laws and their God, but they didn't have the rain. They didn't have the land. They didn't have the people.”
— A contrast between Western and Indigenous values and priorities.
“He knew then that there was no way to get rid of the witchery. It was inside him, inside them all. The only way was to live with it, to accept it, to understand it.”
— Tayo's understanding of the pervasive nature of evil or disruption.
“The stories were not just stories, they were the land. They were the mountains, the mesas, the arroyos, the plants, the animals, the people. They were all one.”
— Highlighting the integral relationship between storytelling and the landscape.
“He had been living in a world of ghosts, a world where nothing was real, where everything was a dream. But now, he was awake. He was alive.”
— Tayo emerging from his post-war dissociative state.
“The white men had taken everything from them except the stories. And the stories were everything.”
— Emphasizing the resilience of Indigenous culture through oral tradition despite colonization.
“The ceremony was not an interruption of daily life, but an intensification of it.”
— Explaining the profound role of ceremony in Pueblo life.
“It was a battle, he realized, not against the white men, but against the witchery, the destroyers who were inside them all.”
— Tayo's internal struggle and understanding of the true enemy.
“He had come back to something he had lost, something he had forgotten, something that had been waiting for him all along.”
— Tayo's return to his spiritual and cultural roots.
“The sun was coming up, and the world was beginning again, just as it always did, just as it always would.”
— A hopeful note at the end of a long night, symbolizing renewal.
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